archaeology

Written by DR. Haris Sukendar
Director of Research Centre for Archaeology

Some heritages that can be grouped into the age of Megalithic tradition are "teras berundak" (platform with stairs), "batur punden" "lumping batu" "batu berlubang" (stone with hole), "batu bergores" (stone with scratch) "menhir arca batu" (stone statue), sarcophagus, etc. The word Megalithic comes from mega, which means "big" , and lithos, which means "stone" . In other words, Megalithic can be defined as a tradition whereby a society has built many tools made of big stone. Those tools were used for their daily life activities.

The origin of Megalithic tradition has made some controversial debate with some different opinions. There are still some discussions on the existence of cultural diffusion. Some say that the Megalithic tradition was started in Egypt and spread to eastern areas as their society looked for their needs such as pearls, gold, etc. This opinion has been brought by McMillan Brown. This idea was not as popular as the opinion of Von Heine Geldern, the expert from Germany who said that those traditions came from Asia, especially South China, and continued onto southern and eastern areas. This theory has been written in his paper entitled "Prehistoric Research in the Netherlands Indie" ( 1945). And, it has received a positive response from other experts like Van Heekern, R.P. Soejono, Teguh Asmar, etc. Furthermore, he said that the spreading or the migration of people from Megalithic culture happened in the Neolithic age which was approximately from 2500 BC. This migration of Austronesians also brought Megalithic culture, which included the expertise to make the stone tools. At a later time, this culture produced "beliung" (stone pickaxe), "belincung gelang batu" (stone bracelet), etc.

At a later time, precisely in the Bronze-iron age, the spread of these states brought also Metal tools (bronze) which were created with the idea of making the big stone tools. Some forms of Megalithic culture in this age were the "waruga" sarcophaguses that functioned as a grave on Bali island. They contained a human skeleton inside, hence functioning as a grave. There were also items like "tajak", "kapak" (axes), "gelang" (bracelet), "tombak" (spear), and bronze sticks. It showed this culture had been influenced by Dongson culture. (more…)

by Stephanie Cass

Anubis, who the ancient Egyptians called Ienpw (phonetically "Yinepu"), is the mysterious canid funerary deity of ancient Egypt. Even the meaning of his name is unknown — speculations range from "Royal Child" to having derived from the world for "to putrefy". Both certainly fit the deity, who was at various points in time of Egyptian history known as the lord of the dead before Osiris and, later, became popularly known as the son of Osiris.

Just what type of animal Anubis is represented by is unknown as well; definitely canid and most likely a jackal or a wild dog — or a hybrid of both — but, as in the case of Seth, with alterations that deliberately smudge the lines of reality. The deep black color Anubis’s animal is not reflective of its actual coat but is instead symbolic of his position as a funerary deity. The reason for Anubis’s animal being canid is based on what the ancient Egyptians themselves observed of the creature — dogs and jackals often haunted the edges of the desert, especially the cemeteries where the dead were buried.

Anubis is an extremely ancient deity. The oldest mastabas of the Old Kingdom have prayers to him carved into their walls, and he is mentioned in the Pyramid Texts in his most celebrated role as a guardian and protector of the dead. A standard offering formula for the dead in the Old Kingdom began thusly:

    "An offering which the king gives and Anubis, who is upon his mountain and in the place of embalming, the lord of the necropolis…."

As mentioned previously, Anubis began in the position that Osiris would later command. In the earliest period of Egyptian religion Anubis was clearly the lord of the dead and Osiris the embalmed god while Anubis performed the act of embalming. Titles that were invested unto Osiris — such as Khenty-Imentiu or "Foremost of Westerners" — were originally Anubis’s. As the drama of Osiris’s death and vindication unfolded over the centuries, Anubis assumed the role of the guide who holds steady the scales on which their hearts are measured against the feather of ma’at as "He Who Counts the Hearts". Should the heart be light as the feather, the soul would then be lead by Anubis (or, in some cases, Harseisis) to be presented to Osiris. Should the heart be heavy, it is fed to Ammit and the soul destroyed. (more…)

Continuity and Change in the spiritual and Political Power of Balinese Performing Arts

Emiko Susilo
About the Author:
Emiko Susilo is an M.A. candidate in Asian Studies and an instructor of Balinese and Javanese Dance at the University of Hawai’i, Manoa. Her research interests focus mainly on the arts of Indonesia.

Introduction

With a few notable exceptions, Balinese performing arts1 are discussed independent of historical and political developments. Because the ties between religion, spiritual belief, and the arts are so strong, it seems almost acceptable to discuss the performing arts solely as they are related to this realm. While the spiritual power of the performing arts is clearly its most profound inspiration and is recognized by most Balinese artists as its most important function, the arts have not developed independently of other aspects of Balinese life: Balinese performers have been responding to socio-cultural changes for centuries. It is often sufficient to state that a certain style or form developed during a particular period. What is frequently left un-addressed is the context in which these developments occurred.

Discussions with Balinese artists in the 1990’s reveals that the larger Balinese social context has an extremely strong influence on the final "product" as well as the process of artistic creation. I would argue that the strong relationship between artists and the communities in which they work and perform has meant that artists have always been responsive to societal changes. Therefore, if we are to consider the current state of the arts in Bali it would be short-sighted to exclude a serious discussion of the Balinese historical context: a context in which dramatic changes in Bali’s political-economy in the last century have had an unmistakable influence on the performing arts. (more…)

by LeeRay Costa
About the aouthor:
LeeRay Costa is currently a Ph.D. candidate in Anthropology at the University of Hawai’i, Manoa. Her interests include gender, social movements, indigenous feminisms and social change in Thailand and Southeast Asia.

Introduction

While the history of education1 in Thailand has been a productive area of research for numerous authors, particularly in its relationship to nationalism and modernization, it remains only a partial history. For this history has primarily documented the evolution and "progress" of Thai men’s education as if it could represent the experiences of Thai women as well. This is indeed not the case. In an exploratory examination of the mainstream historical literature, I found that emphasis was typically placed on the education of royal and elite men, especially in connection with the rise of the Thai bureaucracy and state centralization under the reign of King Chulalongkorn.2 Thus, in many instances, women remain an undeniable absence in Thai history.3 In order to outline a tentative history of women’s education to complement that of men, it was necessary to rely on sources from a number of disciplines, including education, history, anthropology, political science, economics, and population studies. A book entitled A History of Thai Education, published by the Thai Ministry of Education, proved to be the most sensitive to issues of gender in Thailand’s educational history.4 That may be a result of the fact that the majority of committee members compiling the book were Thai women: nine out of a total thirteen.5

What follows is a preliminary attempt to map the evolution of formal education for women in Thai society in order to discover the possible relationship that education, in particular tertiary education, has had with the development of women’s political activism in the contemporary period. I intend to show that the significant gains made in tertiary education by women of various classes since the 1970’s have indeed had an influence upon the heightened politicization of women and have had at least a partial role in the formation of numerous organizations and associations within civil society that have the potential, and in many cases the established goal, of instigating critical social change in the future. As history tells us, the majority of Thai women have only had access to formal education for the past seventy years. Furthermore, it has been only in the past fifteen to twenty years that women’s political organizing has emerged as a significant phenomenon. Yet, there are two clearly opposing viewpoints evidenced in the literature on education in Thailand regarding its liberatory potential. Education is viewed by some authors as a disciplinary technology of nationalism that serves to mold bodies into docile manifestations of Thai national identity,6 while for others education is seen as a tool of empowerment and a means of resistance against larger structures of social and political authority.7 While both arguments are equally valid, and perhaps more provocative when held in tension, I shall argue that the latter position is more relevant to the case of Thai women in the context of their recent political efforts. I therefore begin this essay with a brief review of crucial historical moments in the development of Thailand’s educational system and the resultant ramifications for women. Because much of the literature is centrist in focus (i.e., Bangkok), generalizations and comparisons about education in the provinces are more difficult to make. Nevertheless, because I am interested in women’s education as a whole and its linkages to women’s political participation, I do attempt to provide information on and examples from the rural countryside when possible. This opening section will be followed by a short discussion of both the oppressive and liberatory aspects of formal education in the Thai context. The contemporary situation of Thai women’s political activism and organizing will then be examined, albeit briefly, in relation to the preceding discussion. (more…)

Development, Motivations, and Directions

by Alexander L. Wesson
About The Author:
Alexander L. Wesson is a graduate student in Anthropology at the University of Hawai’i, Manoa. Among his many research interests is the archaeology of Southeast Asia.

Introduction

    Each country has to maintain its own culture… if there is no culture, our country will disappear.
    Chheang Serei Vuthy1

A fresh wave of Khmer2 archaeologists, committed to the stewardship of Cambodia’s past, is rising to the challenges posed by a history of colonialism, the destruction of cultural resources, and a lack of training and facilities. Combined with information gleaned from textual sources, interviews with Khmer archaeologists currently studying at the University of Hawai’i (Bong Sovath, Chan To, Chheang Serei Vuthy, and Tea Van) facilitate the understanding of the historical development, current state, and future directions of indigenous archaeology in Cambodia. Khmer archaeology, largely built upon a foundation of colonialist historical scholarship, is now turning its attention to the sustainable management of Cambodia’s rich cultural heritage through education and preservation. The interviewed Khmer scholars expressed strong sentiments of nationalism and cultural pride, feelings which play a central role in stimulating the investigation of their past. Their views on tourism, education, international collaboration, and independent research offer a look at the future of archaeology in Cambodia. (more…)

Recent findings about the exotic properties of monatomic gold and the platinum group metals are rediscoveries of an advanced science understood or at least known by the ancient Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Israelite priests.

Extracted from Nexus Magazine, Volume 10, Number 2 (February-March 2003)
PO Box 30, Mapleton Qld 4560 Australia. editor@nexusmagazine.com
Telephone: +61 (0)7 5442 9280; Fax: +61 (0)7 5442 9381
From our web page at: www.nexusmagazine.com

© 2002-2003 by Laurence Gardner, Kt, FSA
Post Office Box 4
Ottery St Mary EX11 1YR
United Kingdom
Email: laurence58@btopenworld.com
Website: http://Graal.co.uk

Throughout the past century, and especially since the days of Albert Einstein, scientists have been searching for the Holy Grail of modern physics, which they classify as a "Unified Theory of Everything". This has led to some amazing discoveries and the emergence of a whole new language, which includes superstrings, quarks and superconductivity, along with an awareness of hitherto unknown planes of existence beyond our own familiar space-time.

In the field of quantum mechanics, scientists have recently confirmed that matter can indeed be in two places at once. It is now established that, through quantum entanglement, particles millions of light-years apart can be connected without physical contact. Space-time can now be manipulated, teleportation is becoming a reality, gravity-resistant material is heralded for air transport, and virtual science has led to a greater understanding of hyper-dimensional environments.

When discussing the attributes of monatomic gold and the platinum group metals in Genesis of the Grail Kings, I remarked that it would not be long before the potential of these noble metals was announced for environment-friendly fuel cells. These, I suggested, would supersede fossil fuels for transportation and other practical purposes. At the same time, I touched on their future use in the medical arena, particularly in the field of cancer treatment. More especially, we looked at the gravity-defying attributes of these exotic white-powder substances and at their abilities to superconduct and literally bend space-time. (more…)

By Bill Knell

In 1998 I unleashed a firestorm on the world wide web by meticulously placing an article written about the Grand Canyon in 1909 on my website. It generated more email on the subject then anyone else I had ever chosen to comment on or cover. That’s because the Phoenix Gazette article revealed the existence of a grand secret in the nation’s most famous canyon.

The best way to describe the situation is to allow it to describe itself. Here is the unabridged article just as it appeared in the Phoenix Gazette on April 5, 1909:

The latest news of the progress of the explorations or what is now regarded by scientists as not only the oldest archaeological discovery in the United States, but one of the most valuable in the world, which was mentioned some time ago in the Gazette (see photo at left), was brought to the city yesterday by G.E. Kinkaid, the explorer who found the great underground citadel of the Grand Canyon during a trip from Green River, Wyoming, down the Colorado, in a wooden boat, to Yuma, several months ago. (more…)

Written by  C. David Kreger

Introduction

One of the most important erectus specimen is the Nariokotome Boy, KNM-WT 15000. This specimen was discovered by a team led by R. Leakey and A. Walker at Nariokotome, Kenya, in 1984. This is the most complete early human skeleton ever discovered.

    Throughout the early years of paleoanthropology, there were only two different species that were attributed to the genus Homo. These included the Neanderthals, and Homo erectus. In the early 1960s, this began to change, and human ancestry seemed to be populated by many different players. Accordingly, erectus is one of the better-known members of genus Homo, especially in terms of its well-established place in paleoanthropology. This has begun to change, however, and now some question its place in human evolution.

    Some (e.g., M. Wolpoff) claim that erectus is an invalid taxon, though few accept this interpretation at this point in time. Others believe that the material previously attributed to erectus should be split into several different taxons: Asian and later African material remaining as erectus (with erectus not contributing to modern humans), early African material as ergaster, and European material as heidelbergensis. In this description of the species, the material that has been attributed as ergaster and erectus in the above splitting scenario will be covered, with the heidelbergensis material discussed under the page dedicated to that species.

    A country’s cultural heritage includes all traces of human activity in the physical environment. These are irreplaceable sources of information on people’s lives and activities, and on the historical development of crafts, techniques and art. Because monuments and sites and cultural environments are non-renewable resources, their management must be based on a long-term perspective. Cultural monuments and sites are a source of emotional and aesthetic experiences for many people, and modern society can benefit from the preservation and active use of its cultural heritage.

Excavation of stone age dwellingsPhoto: NTNU Info/Rune Petter Ness

     The Directorate for Cultural Heritage is responsible for the management of all archaeological and architectural monuments and sites and cultural environments in accordance with the applicable legislation. The Directorate is under the auspices of the Ministry of the Environment and plays a central role in public environmental management.

    Each county has a service responsible for cultural conservation in connection with the general administration of cultural affairs. The tasks of this service are to advise the county administration on cultural heritage management issues and to ensure that protected monuments and sites and cultural environments are taken into account in planning processes at the county and the municipal level. In the Sami areas, the Sámediggi (Sami Parliament) has the same tasks as the county cultural heritage service.

The Maritime Museums are responsible for monuments at the bottom of the sea. (more…)

by Gwen Herat

The Borobudur temple built in the 12th century. The sculptured walls extending to over six kilometeres is hailed as the most complete ensemble in Buddhism, in the world.

    Borobudur is located in anlidylie surrounding which is the heart of Java, landscaped by beautiful mountains. It is in south and southwest of Menorah Mountains and on the north and north-east of the volcanos Sumbing and Sendara.

    A delicate, peaceful atmosphere created by the rice fields in all nuances of green to gold, whispering bamboo trees, slender palm trees among the singing of birds with their arabesque colours when in flight. (more…)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A 1634 Japanese Red seal ship, incorporating Western-style square and lateen sails, rudder and aft designs. The ships were typically armed with 6 to 8 cannons. Tokyo Naval Science Museum.

Red seal ships (朱印船 Shuinsen) were Japanese armed merchant sailing ships bound for Southeast Asian ports with a red-sealed patent issued by the early Tokugawa shogunate in the first half of the 17th century. Between 1600 and 1635, more than 350 Japanese ships went overseas under this permit system.

Origins

From the 13th to the 16th century, Japanese ships were quite active in Asian waters, often in the role of "Wakō" pirates who plundered the coast of the Chinese Empire. Official trading missions were also sent to China, such as the Tenryūjibune around 1341. Wakō activity was efficiently curbed in 1588 with the interdiction of piracy by Hideyoshi. (more…)

by John Roach
February 27, 2006

Scientists announced today the discovery of a small "kingdom" on the Indonesian island of Sumbawa thought to have been obliterated by the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history.

The eruption of the volcano Tambora in 1815 killed 117,000 people in Southeast Asia, including those believed buried under ten feet (three meters) of pumice and ash in the recently discovered village.

Volcanic crater of Mount Tambora

The team, led by University of Rhode Island volcanologist Haraldur Sigurdsson, hailed the discovery as the "Pompeii of the East." (more…)

By BRYAN WALSH

FAMILY RESEMBLANCE? Scientists are at odds over the differences between the Flores skull, left, and that of a modern human
MJ MORWOOD—AFP / GETTY IMAGES

For generations, the inhabitants of the Indonesian island of Flores, located 563 km east of Bali, told stories of a race of little people called the Ebu Gogo: hairy, human-like creatures that hid in the island’s limestone caves. Like leprechauns, the Ebu Gogo (the name roughly means "grandmother who eats everything") were assumed by anthropologists to be mythical. That was until a team of Australian and Indonesian researchers excavating a cave on the island uncovered ancient bones that included the 18,000-year-old skeleton of a 1-m-tall female with a brain the size of a grapefruit. In 2004, they announced in Nature magazine that the bones were the remains of a previously unknown species of human?which they named Homo floresiensis?that coexisted for a time with modern Homo sapiens. The remarkable discovery of this ancient hobbit meant the history of human evolution would have to be rewritten. For a moment, it seemed, myths could be true. (more…)