Angkor Wat: The History
[Before AD100] PRE-FUNAN TIMES:
PEOPLES OF INDO-CHINA:
At the end of the ice age (c. 12,000BC) the Indo-Chinese region is firstly inhabited by Australoid peoples. The land bridges between Malaya, the Indonesian islands and Australia are submerged. Various population groups migrate through southeast Asia. The Mon-Khmer people gradually settle in the lands which later become the kingdoms of Funan and Chenla and they become the dominant tribes in the area.
VARIOUS POPULATION GROUPS MIGRATE TO SOUTH EAST ASIA:
The first type of population group to migrate through south east Asia were the Melanesian people. They were followed by two types of Indonesian peoples who migrated to the Indo-Chinese region. The second type of Indonesians were related to the Mongol people as well as to the Japanese.
The tribes who dominated the region during the last two millennia were all descended from these original immigrants. The Cham, Malays and Javanese were related to the Mongol-like Indonesians. The Thai and Vietnamese had a similar ancestry and bore more resemblance to the Mongol peoples. The Mon-Khmer people were thought to be a mixture of the Mongol and Melanesian peoples.
THE MON-KHMERS BECOME THE DOMINANT POLITICAL LEADERS:
The Mon-Khmers eventually became the dominant political leaders in the lands which later became Funan and Chenla. There is very little knowledge of Cambodian prehistory. It is believed that small farming settlements existed next to rivers and lakes. Rearing domestic animals and hunting with bows and arrows took place.
The stone culture was taken over by a metal culture, possibly as early as the fourth century BC. A bronze urn found in the region, similar to those produced by the Dong Son culture in Tonkin (today’s northern Vietnam), was evidence of this. Excavations at the town of Oc-eo on the southern coast of modern Vietnam proved that the Neolithic culture, characterized by the use of stone tools, existed side-by-side with the more sophisticated metal culture.
GEOGRAPHY OF INDO-CHINA:
The Indo-Chinese region today comprises the countries of Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and Thailand. It is made up of large fertile plains which lie around two rivers, the Mekong and the Tonle Sap.
The land is settled by various tribes who develop the independent kingdoms of Tonkin, Annam, Cochin China, Cambodia, Laos and Siam.
c. 4000BC - AD100 Settlements are formed throughout the Indo-China region. The major cultural influences on the region are from China and India. The Dong-Son culture becomes established in the northern part of today’s Vietnam.
CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON THE REGION:
By around 500BC the region was being influenced by two major civilizations. Tonkin and Annam, east of the mountains running down the center of the region, were influenced by China and its culture, including systems of kingship, society and art. The kingdoms west of these mountains, [Map] Cambodia, Laos and Thailand, owe much of their cultural heritage to India.
The earliest-dated culture in the region was the Dong-Son culture found around the plains of Tonkin which had its center at Dong-Son, south of today’s Hanoi. It too was profoundly influenced by the Chinese. Bronze objects, notably huge bronze drums - which may have been used in rainmaking ceremonies after the long dry season - have been discovered in this area and were attributed to this ancient civilization dating from about 500BC to 200BC. Mahayana Buddhism was brought from China and established in Tonkin.
Indo-China:
The region consisting of the countries of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand. It was called `Indo-China’ by the 19th-century Europeans because of the joint cultural influence of India and China on the region.
AD100 - AD600 THE KINGDOM OF FUNAN
c. AD100 The Kingdom of Funan, part of the lands which will become the vast Khmer Empire or Cambodia, is established by the legendary Indian brahmin (or Brahman: A Hindu priest), Kambu. The peaceful settlement of Indian traders begins the process of Indianization of Cambodia.
VARIOUS NAMES USED FOR CAMBODIA:
The country which is today called Cambodia is only a small fraction of the vast Khmer Empire that controlled much of Indo-China from the ninth to the 13th century AD. At its height, the Khmer Empire consisted of today’s Cambodia, Laos, most of southern Vietnam and Thailand, as well as some of the Malay peninsula.
From the time of Jayavarman II (c. AD800 - AD850) to the mid-15th century, the Khmer Empire was known as the Kingdom of Kambuja, after the legendary first-century founder of the first Cambodian kingdom of Funan, the Indian brahmin Kambu. It is in this earliest Cambodian kingdom that Cambodian people see their real roots. The English word `Cambodia’ is derived from this name.
From around AD550 to AD800, the Kingdom of Chenla ruled some of the lands that would become the Khmer Empire. In this text the lands in question will be referred to as Funan and Chenla up to the reign of Jayavarman II. From then on, they will generally be referred to as the Khmer Empire or Kambuja. Cambodia will also be used, referring both to the Khmer empire, and to the smaller kingdom which the French dominated in the 19th and 20th centuries.
THE INDIANIZATION OF CAMBODIA:
The Indianization of the region was a peaceful process of acceptance by the resident tribes in the region. Small settlements were founded by Indian traders, inter-marriage between Indians and natives helped the absorption process and gradually Indian methods of religion, lifestyle, administration and law, writing, building and art styles were adopted by the Cambodian society. Indian literary traditions - especially the Mahabharata - were also incorporated into Cambodian culture and often portrayed in art.
Indianization of the region, particularly the adoption of Indian ideas of kingship and lifestyle, were essential in transforming native tribalism into independently advanced kingdoms. These early kingdoms were themselves the basis for the great empire of the Khmers of which Angkor was the capital city.
This process of Indianization took place in two phases. The first coincides with the legend of Kambuja, around the first century AD. The second period came after the appearance of the foreigner, Chandan, to the throne of Funan in AD357. He was probably an Indian brahmin, and reforms in the law and administration based on Indian types seem to have taken place in the later fourth and fifth centuries. Kaundinya Jayavarman, who succeeded Chandan as king of Funan in AD478, initiated reforms in the law and administration of his kingdom based on similar practices in India. Significant Indian influence was evident in the records of the reigns of the kings of Funan in the sixth century.
c. AD245 Two Chinese ambassadors visit Funan and produce a report on all aspects of life in the kingdom.
THE REPORT OF THE TWO CHINESE AMBASSADORS:
The report of the two Chinese ambassadors who visited the Kingdom of Funan, is our chief source of information about early Cambodian civilization. A comprehensive picture of the court, the king, his administration and the people is given to us. Houses, dress, customs and habits are all included. A strong absolute monarch, who was surrounded by a retinue of nobility and servants, ruled a powerful kingdom which became increasingly warlike and expansionary.
It was the Chinese who gave this kingdom the name of Funan, derived from the Khmer word `phnom.’ It grew to be a huge and powerful empire by the fifth century, and it was therefore necessary that the Chinese collect adequate information about its size and administration for their own protection.
AD357 King Chandan, who is probably of Indian origin, comes to the throne of Funan. He is succeeded by another brahmin ruler.
End AD400 - AD500 The Kingdom of Funan is a prosperous trading region, lying on the trade and pilgrimage route between India and China.
Indian culture still plays an important part in the developing Kingdom of Funan, although native influence over customs, art, architecture and religion is now also very strong. Both forms of Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism, a type of Buddhist religion popular in India and China, exist in Funan.
Mahayana:
A more advanced form of Buddhism than Hinayana Buddhism. In Cambodia, Hinayana Buddhism was the religion of the king and the nobility.
6th century There is evidence from the texts of contemporary Chinese historians that the Funan Empire is strong and respected throughout Asia. Indian influence is still very much evident in all areas of life. Trade in Funan is centered in the prosperous port city of Oc-eo.
CHINESE HISTORICAL TEXTS:
Chinese dynastic histories give us a great deal of information about sixth-century Funan, describing a prosperous, hierarchical society with a rich slave-owning nobility headed by a powerful king who rode on an elephant. Buildings were almost all made of wood, and so we have no direct evidence of what they looked like, but the Chinese histories describe richly ornate palaces. Law was through trial by ordeal and both Hinduism and Buddhism were popular in the kingdom.
A large and prosperous port city, Oc-eo, lay in the southwest of the kingdom. A great deal of trade passed through this city which had a good system of waterways and canals. The wealth of the kingdom was based on trade, as it was conveniently placed between India and China with easy access by sea and river. The capital of Funan, in [Map] Prey Veng province, was inland near the city which is called Banam today.
AD514 - c. AD539 King Rudravarman is the last of the great kings of Funan. He cultivates the worship of the Hindu god Vishnu. Statues of the god dating from his reign still exist today, showing the influence of contemporary Indian art and religious iconography.
c. AD550 Prince Bhavavarman of the Funan royal family (and grandson of King Rudravarman) marries the female heir to the throne of Chenla, a fertile kingdom to the north of Funan occupying the territory which today is Laos. Chenla is inhabited by the Mon-Khmer people whose leaders are related to the Funan royal family before the time of Bhavavarman.
On the Chenla king’s death, Bhavavarman becomes King of Chenla, and when the Funan king dies, he siezes Funan as well. Within a few years, Funan becomes a vassal state to Chenla.
AD600 - AD800 THE KINGDOM OF CHENLA
c. AD600 - AD611 Bhavavarman is succeeded by Mahendravarman and then by Isanavarman, both of whom are strong kings and complete the process of integrating Funan into Chenla.
The capital of Chenla is initially at Sambor, some 40 miles southeast of Angkor.
AD616 - AD635 King Isanavarman rules the Kingdom of Chenla with his capital at Sambor Prei Kuk.
Architecture develops in the kingdom using sandstone for building and beautiful carvings in stone for the temples.
AD635 - AD656 King Bhavavarman II rules Chenla. Mahayana Buddhism spreads in Chenla. Statues celebrating this religion are found.
c. AD750 Jayavarman I becomes King of Chenla. His reputation is as a strong war-like king who expands the Chenla kingdom through his many conquests. Ruined temples from this time still stand in the land around the Angkor region. Wars of succession divide and weaken Kambuja. Contact with India is broken and trade ceases. As the Kingdom of Chenla declines, the Saliendra dynasty in Indonesia rises to power. It is possible that this Indonesian dynasty may have, in part, descended from the royal family of Funan.
CAMBODIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE BETWEEN THE SIXTH AND EIGHTH CENTURIES:
Native Cambodian traditions blended with Indian traditions, producing a Khmer style which was unique, although it has to be said the latter heavily influenced art and architecture.
Statues and buildings were mainly wooden at this time and temples often had stone doorways. Stone was brought from the mountains of Chenla to the west. Sandstone carving on the lintels of the temples at Sambor Prei Kuk show a very high standard of bas-relief carving and Indian religious iconography. Stone carving copied the techniques and designs of wood carving which was already well established and perfected by this time in Cambodia. Beautiful Buddhist and Hindu statues dating from the sixth to the eighth centuries were also discovered.
Late AD800 This is a period of weakness and eventual disintegration into individual states for the Kingdom of Chenla. There is an administrative breakdown which results in the separate states being powerless. Meanwhile the Saliendra dynasty, the ruling house of the Indonesian Empire, becomes increasingly powerful and starts expanding in southeast Asia. The Saliendra king of Java invades Chenla and claims the throne, possibly on the grounds that he is descended from the royal house of Funan. Cambodia becomes a vassal state of Java.
AD800 - 1440 THE KINGDOM OF KAMBUJA
c. AD800 - AD850 Jayavarman II, a young man connected to the Chenla royal family and educated at the Saliendra court in Java, returns to Chenla in AD790. He becomes king around AD800. Initially he extends his kingdom by seizing land to the north and east of Chenla. His 50-year reign is decisive in developing the Khmer Kingdom by establishing its constitution, religion and capital. His reign also sees important changes in Khmer architecture. He builds several capitals, but finally establishes his principal capital at Roluos, about 10 miles southeast of today’s town of Siem Reap. He names this city Hariharalaya.
RELIGION DURING THE REIGN OF JAYAVARMAN II:
Both Hindu and Buddhist religions were practised in ninth century Cambodia. Hinduism was introduced by the Indian settlers in the early years of the Kingdom of Funan and quickly became absorbed into Cambodian culture. Buddhism came from China and India and was also widely practised in Cambodia. It was Jayavarman II who established the religious cult of devaraja, the cult of the divine god-king. This cult would form the basis for the power of Khmer kings over the next 400 years.
ARCHITECTURE UNDER JAYAVARMAN II:
Jayavarman II had several capitals. He established his court at Sambor, then at Phnom Kulen and finally at Roluos. These settlements were about 40, 20 and 10 miles southeast of Siem Reap respectively.
The temples built during Jayavarman II’s reign during the first half of the ninth century marked a new phase of Khmer architecture. Ruins of temples built at Sambor and Roluos still exist and seem to prove that the old style was continued here. However, at Phnom Kulen a temple was built which shows the beginnings of the style of building used in the temples at Angkor.
The Phnom Kulen brick temple was the first attempt at a [Pict] pyramid temple, imitating the cosmic mountain. Jayavarman II built one of his capitals, Mahendraparvata, on Phnom Kulen. Mahendraparvata means `the Mountain of the Great King of the Gods’ and Jayavarman II probably took the title of `Mountain King’ to emanate the powerful Saliendra Dynasty which took the same title.
Hariharalaya:
The Hindu god which is made up of the gods Siva and Vishnu in one image. It is also the name of King Jayavarman II’s city, near the site of Angkor.
AD850 - c. AD877 Jayavarman III, son of Jayavarman II, succeeds the throne of Kambuja and continues to rule the empire from the city at Roluos.
c. AD877 - c. AD889 Indravarman I, a nephew of Jayavarman II, rules Kambuja. He is learned and brings peace and unity to the Khmer Kingdom. He has a wide reputation for being a strong king throughout southeast Asia. His peaceful reign and the income from the expanding Khmer Empire enables King Indravarman I to embark on an ambitious building program.
INDRAVARMAN’S BUILDING PROGRAM:
Indravarman I was responsible for building the first irrigation system of barays and canals on which the city depended for its water supply, and which farmers in the surrounding areas used to irrigate their rice fields. He built the Lolei baray at the site of his capital in Roluos. This man-made irrigation system was immensely important for expanding the Khmer capital.
Under Indravarman I, the design and size of the temple increased dramatically. Preah Ko and the Bakong, together with Lolei Temple built by Indravarman’s successor, Yasovarman I, marked a new phase in Khmer architecture. He began the building of Preah Ko temple in AD879, south of the Lolei baray, and in AD881 he also began to build the Bakong temple, his own temple-mountain.
These buildings were surrounded by moats which were fed from the Lolei baray. Water flowed through the irrigation system to the Great Lake. Channels divided up the city and provided easy transport. The buildings stood on great mounds of earth, created after excavating the barays and canals.
AD877 Indravarman builds a large reservoir north of the city.
c. AD889 - c. AD900 Yasovarman I (son of Indravarman) is King of Kambuja. He supposedly descends from the Funan royal family through his mother. Many inscriptions found on temple walls describing the events of his rule date from his reign. It is believed that he was a strong but tyrannical ruler. He moves the city from Roluos to the present site of Angkor, a few miles from today’s town of Siem Reap. Here he [Map] builds the city of Yasodharapura with the Bakheng as the central temple. At Roluos he builds the Lolei Temple in the center of the baray.
INSCRIPTIONS:
The inscriptions on the ruins of temples have been invaluable in telling us about the lives of the kings and the kingdoms they ruled in early Cambodia. Nevertheless, these inscriptions can also be misleading. For many years, scholars believed that Yasovarman I was one of the most important kings of the Khmer Empire. The inscriptions painted a picture of a unique king, excelling in learning, sports, the arts and kingship.
We do know that he was responsible for the building of a city named Yasodharapura, which covered an area of about 10 square miles and where the Bakheng was the main temple. He also had the course of the Siem Reap River altered where he constructed a reservoir known as the east baray. His 10-year rule was an important and productive time in the history of the Khmer Empire, but he was not responsible for many of the greatest buildings of Angkor, which have since been accredited to kings who lived 200 years later.
Inscriptions could therefore be both a help and a hindrance to historians. Often they are amusing to readers more than 1,000 years later. For example, one of Yasovarman’s sons was recorded as "surpassing Kama in his beauty, dissipating the fogs, possessing all the talents, he was a moon among kings."
YASODHARAPURA AND THE BAKHENG TEMPLE:
Yasovarman I may have moved the city to the Angkor site because he needed more room for the growing population. He continued the irrigation program started by Indravarman I. He built the east baray, which was one mile by five miles and fed by the waters of the Siem Reap River. This enabled him to cultivate more land and support a larger population. This new city (Yasodharapura), a few miles north of [Map] today’s village of Siem Reap, became the basis for the city of Angkor we see today.
The Bakheng Temple was built on the only natural hill in the area, Phnom Bakheng. It is 214 feet tall and stands outside the south gate of the surviving city of Angkor Thom. Yasovarman I continued the tradition started by his predecessor, Jayavarman II, of literally declaring himself `mountain king’ by building his principal temple on a hill. The temple stood in the center of Yasovarman’s city and was used to house his royal linga during his life and as a tomb after his death. It was a fairly large and imposing pyramid temple. Flights of steps led up to the receding terraces and statues of lions guarded these stairs. Today, it offers a wonderful panoramic view of Angkor Thom and Angkor Wat.
Baray:
An artificial reservoir used for irrigation and water supply.
AD900 - AD921 Harshavarman I, Yasovarman’s brother, rules. He builds his temple-mountain, the Baksei Chamkrong, a stone pyramid with a single tower.
AD921 Harshavarman’s uncle, Jayavarman IV, divides the kingdom and sets up a rival capital about 60 miles to the north east of Angkor in the old Chen La Kingdom at Koh Ker. His son rules in this new capital.
Prasat Kravan is built to honor Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu. It is a brick temple with a rich beautiful shrine. This is one of the first temples not to be dedicated by a king, but rather by an individual or member of the hereditary aristocracy.
Prasat:
A temple tower used in both Indian and Khmer architecture. (In Indian the word is prasada).
c. AD930 - c. AD944 An usurper successor (whose name is unknown) rules, followed by his son. The capital remains far away from the Angkor site.
AD944 - AD968 Rajendravarman II, a descendant of Yasovarman I, rules Kambuja and brings the court back to the old capital, Yasodharapura, at Angkor. He continues to expand the Khmer Empire further and manages an impressive building program during his relatively short reign. The Sanskrit inscriptions on the temples remaining from this reign tell us that this king was wise and tolerant. Several Mahayana Buddhist establishments are set up at Angkor during his reign.
RAJENDRAVARMAN II’S BUILDING PROGRAM:
Rajendravarman built a central temple, Pre Rup, which has some fine carvings on the temple doors. He surrounded Pre Rup with other religious buildings made of stone and many wooden houses for his court to live in. He also built the East Mebon Temple in AD952 on an island in the east baray. Both are large pyramid temples with layers of platforms and five towers symbolizing the five peaks of Mount Meru. He then built the Phimeanakas Temple, which was later surrounded by the Royal Enclosure, built some years later by Jayavarman V. The Phimeanakas temple has an interesting legend about a Khmer king and a snake princess attached to it.
Mahayana:
A more advanced form of Buddhism than Hinayana Buddhism. In Cambodia, Hinayana Buddhism was the religion of the king and the nobility.
c. AD950 Rajendravarman II attacks the Cham Kingdom which lies to the east of Kambuja.
AD968 - 1001 Jayavarman V rules Kambuja. His reign is marked by peace, prosperity and cultural development. Jayavarman V’s court is filled with scholars, poets, ministers, ecclesiastics and philosophers who discuss the mysteries of the world, paint its beauties, write music and songs, dance for the delight of the king and his courtiers and build wonderful temples, among them the exquisite temple of Banteai Srei.
Jayavarman V also builds the temple of Ta Keo which is dedicated to Siva and is the first of the Angkor temples to be built completely of sandstone.
THE BANTEAI SREI TEMPLE:
This temple marks a high point in Khmer architecture, although it was by no means the culminating point. It was thought to be 14th century, but in fact was built around AD968 during the reign of Jayavarman V. The name Banteai Srei means `citadel of the women,’ and it typified the peaceful, tolerant spirit of the age which encouraged the creation of beautiful buildings. The temple was founded by a brahmin, Yajnavaraha, who was tutor to Rajendravarman and his son.
Banteai Srei is situated about 20 miles northeast of Angkor Thom, and six miles west of Phnom Kulen. Jungle and wildlife - gibbons, butterflies, insects and birds - surround the temple and small farms are nearby. There is a road leading to it which is passable in a jeep and is well worth visiting to see its exquisite carving in pink-colored sandstone.
The layout of the buildings was a new direction in Khmer architecture. The temple complex consisted of a well-planned group of shrines, libraries, courtyards and galleries surrounded by a moat. Three shrines dedicated to Vishnu and Siva were on a low platform with library buildings on each side and various subordinate buildings surrounding them. The Sanskrit inscriptions on the typanums of the libraries described the dedications of the shrines to Vishnu and Siva, and other typanums related scenes from the Hindu epic poem, the Mahabharata. There was a gateway leading into the inner area where the main buildings were located. The whole area was enclosed by a moat and an outer wall with a second outer gateway.
These shrines were built to house great treasures, and beautiful carvings covered them and the libraries. The carvings were executed with such finesse that they appeared almost lacy. The carved faces were sharply defined, but with lots of characterization. The size of the buildings themselves were small, almost petite. Each tower was topped by five tiers decorated with carved figures. The steps up to the shrines were guarded by half-human statues with the heads of monkeys, parrots and wild cats.
The layout of the complex, using several buildings with different functions, would be used in the later great temples. Banteai Srei was not a pyramid temple, as the shrines were built almost at ground level. It was the form and layout of Banteai Srei which, combined with the grandeur of the large pyramid temple, produced the astounding achievement of Angkor Wat.
c. 980 - 1220 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY OF ANGKOR
1001 - c. 1006 A period of weakness and civil war in Kambuja. Udayadityavarman I rules, followed by Jayaviravarman, both descendants of the royal house of Kambuja.
c.1002 Suryavarman, a young man who may have come from the Malayan provinces of the Khmer Empire, ascends the throne of Kambuja by claiming that his mother was descended from Indravarman I. He invades Kambuja and by 1006 overcomes Jayaviravarman and becomes King of Kambuja.
c. 1006 - 1050 Suryavarman I is King of Kambuja for nearly 50 years. At the beginning of his reign he embarks on a campaign of territorial expansion, annexing land in the Menam valley to the west and the Mekong valley to the north. After this there is peace and much building. Suryavarman is responsible for the planning and foundations of much of the city that can be seen at Angkor today. He adopts the royal Hindu cult of Devaraja and sets himself up as a representative of the god Siva. However, his homeland is a Buddhist one so he also helps the spread of Mahayana Buddhism in Cambodia.
BUILDING UNDER SURYAVARMAN I:
The peace that followed Suryavarman I’s military campaigns and the huge revenues drawn from the various parts of the Khmer Empire enabled him to undertake a huge building program. A new town was planned and laid out with wide avenues and large buildings. A royal enclosure was built with the official palace in front of it, as well as a grand plaza and many public bathing pools. Some of the terraces built by Suryavarman I are still standing today.
More waterways to carry water around the city and to irrigate the rice fields, which fed the huge court and the population of the city of Angkor, were constructed. He also continued work on the Phimeanakas and added new parts to Preah Vihear, as well as build temples at Vak Ek, Vat Baset, Phnom Chisor and Chau Srei Vibol.
Suryavarman I’s reign was a time of greatness for the Khmer people. He ruled a huge empire covering much of southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos and the Malay peninsula. His city was large and grand, comprising numerous temples and terraces made of stone and hundreds of wooden domestic buildings. These were used to house the king, his courtiers and officials.
At this time, Angkor was a lively colorful city full of people and bustling activity. In place of the silence one experiences today - broken only by the chattering of wildlife - Suryavarman I’s Angkor was full of noise: hawkers shouting their wares in the markets; people chatting on street corners; officials busily going about their duties; and grand processions of elephants and horses going to and from the grand palace of the king.
Devaraja:
The cult of a god-king which was developed by Jayavarman II in Cambodia around AD800 and became the basis for the religion practiced by future Khmer kings. The king was the earthly representative of the god Siva (The Hindu god of chaos, destruction and rebirth).
1050 - 1066 Udayadityavarman II succeeds Suryavarman I and continues building in Angkor. He builds the west baray (An artificial reservoir used for irrigation and water supply) and canals, and submerges some of the old ninth-century city under it. He builds a new city at Angkor, the third city to be built there. His central temple is the Baphuon Temple. There is further consolidation and expansion of the Khmer Empire.
THE BAPHUON TEMPLE:
The Baphuon Temple was constructed as the principal temple in Udayadityavarman II’s new city and was used to house his royal linga. It was the largest pyramid temple to be constructed at the time, and it demonstrated the king’s desire to build a larger temple than his predecessor.
The Sanskrit inscriptions found on the temple say that it was "a gold temple on a gold mountain," and the Chinese chronicler, Chou Ta-Kuan, said that the central tower of the Baphuon was made of copper. This tower once stood 142 feet high, but its summit is now gone. It may well have been covered with copper or gold and would have been a spectacular sight as the sun went down.
The most impressive feature of the Baphuon is the fine sculpture on the lintel, door frames and columns. Many tales from the Mahabharata and Ramayana are told in the superb bas-relief carving. The sculptural style is possibly the most beautiful surviving in Angkor, perfectly executed without being overly ornate. These carvings have a more restrained style than the work that was completed later. On the west side of the temple, a reclining Buddha, 120 feet long, has been sculpted out of the wall; today it is only partly visible because of the mass of vegetation which has grown over it.
Only three steep massive terraces and some superstructures remain. The towers and galleries are gone. The Baphuon was too big, and was built on an earth mountain. After the earth subsided, the temple slipped and cracked. However, the remains give an impression of its former size and are home to some of the most beautiful of Khmer sculpture.
c. 1060 Towards the end of his reign, there is a period of internal rivalry and warfare which weakens the kingdom. The Cham regain their independence and sack and burn the city of Sambor in Chen La, on the Mekong.
1066 - 1080 Harshavarman II rules until 1080, gradually losing the empire his predecessors had gained. Some of the earlier temples are destroyed, including the temple of Preah (The Khmer word for sacred) Pulilay (built by Udayadityavarman I) of which only a fragment remains showing the beautiful decoration achieved during Udayadityavarman’s reign.
1080 A northern provincial governor claiming aristocratic descent seizes the kingdom and founds a new dynasty, calling himself Jayavarman VI. There are rival claimants to the throne and he never fully establishes himself at Angkor, only building in northern Cambodia, at Preah Vihear, Vat Phu and Phimai in the part of the empire which is now northern Thailand. He dies in 1107.
1107 - 1113 Jayavarman VI’s brothers rule. Rival claims to the throne and civil war continue and the kingdom is temporarily partitioned. Suryavarman, an ambitious nobleman who claimes he is related to the Cambodian royal family, takes advantage of the weakened kingdom and seizes power. He deposes both kings and takes the throne.
1113 - 1150 Suryavarman II rules Kambuja. Initially, he concentrates on territorial expansion and conquers [Map]the neighboring kingdom of the Chams, extending the limits of the Khmer Empire more than ever before. He embarks on an ambitious building program, expanding the city of Angkor and building many temples including Preah Pithu, Chansay Tevoda and Thommanon, all in the Angkor region. Angkor Wat, a temple dedicated to the god Vishnu, and generally recognized as the highest achievement of Khmer temple architecture, is also built during his reign.
ANGKOR WAT:
When Henri Mahout, the French botanist, stumbled across Angkor Wat in 1860, he was stunned by its vast size, soaring towers, dramatic carvings and endless courtyards, avenues and buildings. From ground level, Angkor Wat looms out of the forest, a great pyramid of stone surrounded by a huge moat with wide causeways leading up to it. An aerial view gives a good idea of its size and layout.
Built by King Suryavarman (1113 - 1150), it was a realization in stone of the cosmic universe. The magic mountain, Mount Meru, is in the center, surrounded by oceans and plains. The 12th-century architects who built this temple brilliantly overcame technical difficulties and found architectural methods to construct a monument so large, so complex and yet with every smallest part so beautifully decorated and detailed.
Explorers past and present were amazed, some believing it to be the work of another civilization or conqueror who had lived in quite a different age; some even thinking it must be the work of gods. Carvings embellish miles of stone, telling the stories of Hindu mythology. Statues are everywhere, from the large imposing lions and nagas flanking the causeways and stairways, to the tiny carving of a god, protected in a niche and hidden away in the corner of a dark inner sanctuary.
Angkor Wat has been well cared for over the centuries. Since the city was abandoned in 1431, Buddhist monks occupied the temple and cleared the vegetation away which did such damage to the other temples. The Ecole d’Extreme Orient worked on the temple from 1907 until the Vietnam War disrupted the region too much for them to continue.
Today Angkor stands fully restored and once again is occupied by Buddhist monks. It is the largest religious monument in the world, both a pilgrimage destination and an architectural creation which visitors have marveled at over many years.
1145 Suryavarman plans to seize control of all of Annam and asks the king of Champa to assist him. He refuses so Suryavarman deposes him and annexes his kingdom. The Cham regain independence in 1149.
1150 Suryavarman II tries to reconquer Annam. He leads his armies through jungle mountains where they die of fever. He dies in 1150, leaving the kingdom exhausted and weak.
1150 - 1181 Suryavarman’s strong rule is followed by rival claims to the throne and warfare, during which many buildings are destroyed. The legitimate heir is Jayavarman, the son of Suryavarman II. He is a fervent Buddhist who deplores violence. When a rival, Yasovarman, claims the throne, Jayavarman allows him to take it in order to avert bloodshed in the kingdom, and he retires to Champa. Yasosvarman is killed by rebels after a five-year reign. Jayavarman again steps down to his rival claimant, Tribhuvanandityavarman, who is a nobleman not directly descended from the house of Kambuja. War between Kambuja and Champa follows.
1177 The Cham sack Angkor, take its wealth and burn the wooden city. Jayavarman returns to Kambuja and defeats the Cham, removing them from the kingdom in a great and decisive battle.
1181 - 1220 Jayavarman becomes king in 1181 and rules the kingdom as Jayavarman VII. He takes revenge on the Cham, invades Champa, seizes the capital, Vijaya, and reduces Champa to a vassal state of the Khmer Empire. Then he extends the empire more than ever before through a series of campaigns. In the south he annexes most of the Malay peninsula, in the west he takes land as far as the borders of Burma, he goes north as far as Vientiane and into Annam in the east.
c. 1181 In order to appease the people who are increasingly adopting Buddhism, Jayavarman becomes a Buddhist himself.
Once he stabilizes his enlarged empire, Jayavarman starts a massive building program. This includes the reconstruction of Angkor Thom with the Bayon as the central temple and the building of Ta Prohm and Preah Khan temples.
Banteai Kdei, Sra Srang (a large public bathing pool), Banteai Chmar, Neak Pean, and Ta Som temples are also built. Along the main roads leading to Angkor he builds 102 hospitals and 121 pilgrim hostels. The vast amount of building results in Jayavarman overtaxing and overworking his subjects. Land is lost from the empire and Champa breaks away from the Khmer Kingdom again.
ANGKOR THOM:
Jayavarman VII (ruled 1181 - 1220) came to power at the age of 60. He built the city of Angkor Thom in a last frenzy of activity as the Khmer Empire began its long decline. The size and layout of this new city, raised on the site of the old city of Angkor, was vast, representing a great king. Its construction required the forced labor of thousands of people, who became increasingly disillusioned with serving their king in this way.
The whole city was surrounded by a broad moat 300 feet wide, and eight miles in circumference and was reputably filled with crocodiles. A stone wall 24 feet high and 10 miles long inside the moat offered further protection against enemies. The city had five huge gates, each with a causeway crossing the moat. The 60-foot high gateways were elaborately decorated and wide enough to admit a procession of elephants. Each gate was decorated with elephant trunks carved in stone and on top, four huge carved faces of the Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara looked north, south, east and west.
Each causeway was bordered by the sculptured balustrades of nagas, and with 54 statues of gods and 54 statues of demons. The causeways led all the way to the temple of Preah Khan, about a mile away. Wide avenues connected the multitude of stone and wooden buildings, temples, terraces and plazas. On the towers around the city walls, huge smiling Buddha faces were carved out of stone. These were in fact all given the face of Jayavarman VII, smiling serenely as he surveyed his city.
The court, religious leaders, priests and administrative officials lived inside the city walls. Other citizens lived outside by the east and west barays and along the Siem Reap River up to the shores of the great lake. At the center of the city was the Grand Plaza, which led off to all the other buildings. Jayavarman added the Terrace of Elephants (known as the Royal Terrace) along one side of the plaza. It was from this 1,100-foot long platform, decorated with bas-relief carvings of elephants, lions and devatas, that audiences watched the grand processions and pageants in the Royal Plaza. On the opposite side of the central square, Jayavarman constructed the 12 Towers of the Cord Dancers, each probably housing a statue or a linga.
Beautiful carvings can be seen on the Terrace of the Leper King. Located north of the Terrace of Elephants on one side of the Royal Plaza, it stands 22 feet high. On top of it there is a mysterious statue, thought to be of Siva or of Yasovarman (AD889 to c. AD900), the builder of the first city of Angkor. There is a legend that he died of leprosy and this statue was later carved in his memory.
THE BAYON TEMPLE:
The Bayon was the principal temple built by Jayavarman VII, situated within the walls of the City of Angkor Thom. Jayavarman VII was a Buddhist, but the Bayon contains elements of both Buddhism and Hinduism. It was originally dedicated to the god, Siva, and the initial plan was for only two levels to be built. During construction, it became a Mahayana Buddhist temple and a third level was built and decorated with Buddha statues.
The early construction of the Bayon was similar to Preah Khan, Ta Prohm and Banteay Kdei temples, all of which were horizontal temples. Jayavarman evidently later decided to build a pyramid temple, with the same symbolic form of Mount Meru being used again, only in a Buddhist temple. The third level with massive towers and mysterious carved faces were added.
The whole building process took several decades and later structures were superimposed on the earlier design. This resulted in a mass of dark narrow corridors, some of which were in fact the spaces between walls dating from different periods. Sometimes stones laid later on destroyed earlier carvings made in the walls of the temple.
In the time of Chou Ta-Kuan (late 13th century), the towers of the Bayon were covered with gild, and on the east side of the temple there was a golden bridge guarded by golden lions. This gold was looted, probably by the Thais in the mid-15th century when they sacked Angkor. By the late 19th century, the Bayon had suffered great damage from the encroaching jungle. Unlike Angkor Wat, which had become a Buddhist shrine and had been carefully cleared of vegetation by Buddhist monks over the centuries, the Bayon had been left entirely to the mercy of the jungle for 450 years.
This third level of the Bayon temple is remarkable. There are 54 towers, each headed by four faces of Avalokitesvara which stare at the visitor from all angles. [Pict] The bas-relief carvings at the Bayon] show an extraordinary tableaux of contemporary Cambodian life on the first level, and stories from the Hindu myths on the second level.
PREAH KHAN:
This is one of the larger temples built by Jaya varman VII. It has been very well preserved and much of the original temple remains today. It is much smaller than Angkor Wat and the Bayon, but was built to the same form. A central sanctuary is surrounded by galleries, library buildings and other lesser buildings. The temple is surrounded by four walls and a moat.
This was a Buddhist temple, so the general effect is not the same as the pyramid temple, but a simpler style built mainly at ground level. However, the decoration is anything but simple. Many of the elaborate Hindu-related bas-reliefs on this temple were effaced by Buddhists hundreds of years ago. The ones that remain show a somewhat frenzied style of decoration which, in places, is over-elaborate and crowded.
TA PROHM TEMPLE:
This temple is considered the most beautiful by many visitors because of its extraordinary relationship with the surrounding jungle which is actually slowly destroying it. Ta Prohm is a very large Buddhist temple built by Jayavarman VII and once tended by 18 high priests and more than 2,500 lesser priests. It housed more than 12,000 people within its enclosures.
Once it was abandoned, the jungle slowly overtook the buildings, cracking and squeezing walls and prising stones apart. The French restorers decided to leave Ta Prohm exactly as they found it, so today the slow encroachment of the jungle continues to take place. Great blocks that fell centuries ago lie on the jungle floor covered in ferns and bushes. The canopy of trees which overhang the whole site obstruct the sunlight, creating a strange green half-light. Everywhere there are insects, birds, bats, frogs and animals - all living in the ruins.
Ta Prohm is a strange harmony of stone and vegetation which will one day disappear forever into the soil of the jungle. Some carvings and statues remain as sharply carved as they were nearly 800 years ago.
1220 - c. 1400 Twelve kings of Kambuja rule a shrinking, weakening empire. Despite this, the royal court continues its extravagant lifestyle, but no new temples are built.
1220 - 1440 THE DECLINE AND FALL OF ANGKOR AND THE KHMER EMPIRE:
From around 1220 when Jayavarman VII dies, the Khmer Empire declines and the Thai Empire to the west of Kambuja becomes the dominant force in southeast Asia. The Cham people to the east of Kambuja and the Laotians to the north also become increasingly significant in the region. Hinayanist Buddhism, advocating a simple life of both people and priests becomes established in Kambuja.
HINAYANIST BUDDHISM:
Hinayanist Buddhism was a religion of the common people, quite different from the Mahayanist Buddhism of Jayavarman VII and the Hindu-Khmer religion of the previous Khmer emperors, who worshipped the Hindu gods Siva and Vishnu. Both these religions upheld the right of kings to rule with absolute authority, enabling them to tax and work their people very harshly. Both religions required vast temples built at the expense of the people. Worship was not for the common people, but for an elite of priests, who could preach to hundreds or even thousands in a single temple.
Hinayanist Buddhism advocated a life of simplicity and was naturally attractive to a largely agrarian peasant population. Its priests did not live in grand temples built by the taxes and forced labor of the people. They lived in simple grass huts, leading a frugal, contemplative life.
Hinayanist Buddhism also preached a simple kind of democracy. As this religion spread in Cambodia, popular discontent with a rich, decadent nobility and absolute rulers increased. The people grew rebellious and simply refused to support the kind of building programs which the Khmer kings had demanded of them.
1296 The Chinese ambassador and his entourage visit Kambuja and spend a year in Angkor. Chou Ta-Kuan, one of the Chinese officials, writes his report of late 13th-century Kambuja from which much of our knowledge of the kingdom at this time is drawn.
THE REPORT OF CHOU TA-KUAN:
Chou Ta-Kuan’s report is one of the most comprehensive contemporary accounts of Kambuja that remains today. He was a relatively junior member of an ambassador’s delegation on a diplomatic visit to Kambuja, seeking the promise of the Khmer king to pay homage to Timur Khan, successor to the great Mongol conqueror Kubilai Khan.
Chou was an extremely observant and perceptive man. He has given us a complete picture of life in Kambuja - from the geography and wildlife of the kingdom to a lively picture of a festival-day procession. A complex society emerges with a good deal of differentiation of classes. The king is still a powerful ruler, surrounded by an elaborate court. We also learn about the natural wealth of Kambuja and the active commerce which took place. It makes interesting and often amusing reading. He describes the crocodiles of Kambuja as "large as boats which have four feet and are exactly like a dragon but have no horns; their belly is very delicious."
1350 The Thai capital is moved to Ayudhya, near Angkor. This threatens the increasingly weak Cambodian Kingdom.
1350 - 1430 Almost continual warfare between the Thais and Khmers is waged during this period.
1369 The Thais attack Angkor and take the city. They control it briefly.
1389 Angkor again falls to the Thais.
1431 The Thais launch a major attack on Angkor. After a seven-month siege, Angkor falls and is sacked and looted. The city is deserted the following year and the capital is moved east to the region of Phnom Penh.
1450 - 1860 THE PERIOD OF VASSALAGE TO THAILAND AND VIETNAM:
From the mid-15th century onwards, after Angkor falls to the Thais, the Khmer Empire is in serious decline. The Vietnamese and Thai Empires control the Indo-China peninsula. Warfare continues between the Thais and Khmers, with Kambuja periodically becoming little more than a vassal state of Thailand.
1516 - 1566 King Ang Chan rules Kambuja. His reign sees a strengthening of the Khmer Kingdom and some raids into Thailand are made.
1564 The Khmers reach Ayudhya, the capital of Thailand, try to annex it, but find it already occupied by the Burmese.
1566 - 1576 King Barom Reachea I rules Kambuja. There is a second period of greater Khmer strength and some temporary success in the wars against the Thais. The Cambodian court briefly reoccupies Angkor.
1576 - 1599 THE SPANISH INTERLUDE
1576 - c.1594 Under constant attack from the Thais, King Satha, who rules Kambuja, seeks military support from the Spanish, who by this time are well established in southeast Asia.
1594 The Thais capture the new Cambodian capital at Lovek.
c. 1594 Satha is deposed. The usurper, Chung Prei, becomes king.
1596 A Spanish expedition arrives in Cambodia to aid King Satha against the Thais. They sack the Chinese quarter of Phnom Penh and kill the king and his son. They then march to Laos and take King Satha’s son, putting him on the Kambujan throne in Phnom Penh as King Barom Reachea II.
1599 The Kambujan court try to oust Reachea II in favor of King Satha’s brother, Soryopor, to rid Kambuja of Spanish influence. The inhabitants of the Spanish garrison in Phnom Penh are massacred and Soryopor takes control after a brief period of confusion when three princes occupy the throne. This marks the end of the Spanish influence in Cambodia.
17th & 18th centuries The Kingdom of Cambodia continues to shrink and survives increasingly at the mercy of Thailand and the Nguyen lords who rule Vietnam.
1779 - 1860 With Thai support, the Ang clan rule Cambodia from 1779 until 1860.
1857 France invades Vietnam, aiming to win the race with England to take control of the Indo-Chinese peninsula.
1860 - 1904 King Norodom rules Cambodia. In 1863, Cambodia is established as a French protectorate, ostensibly to prevent the country from being swallowed up by Thailand and Vietnam. In 1884, King Norodom is forced to sign a convention with France which transfers a great deal of control of Cambodia to the French. There is a brief but strong popular rebellion against French control of Cambodia from 1885 to 1887 which is supported by the king.
1860 Henri Mouhot, a French botanist discovers the Angkor ruins. French interest in Angkor begins, leading to an intensive research and restoration program throughout the later half of the 19th and 20th century by the Ecole Francaise d’Extreme Orient. The program is disrupted by the Vietnam war in the 1960s.
HENRI MOUHOT `DISCOVERS’ ANGKOR:
Henri Mouhot was one of many intrepid young Europeans who trekked across unexplored parts of Asia. He was a botanist and made the expedition to Indo-China in order to collect and take species back to France to study.
In Battambang, near the Tonle Sap, a French missionary told him of rumors about ancient ruins in the nearby jungle. Mouhot was fascinated and decided to explore. He was guided through the dense tropical forest until he came across Angkor Wat. He spent three weeks there documenting the temples and drawing sketches. His diary, written between early 1859 and November 1861 - when he died of fever deep in the Laotian jungle - was returned to Bangkok by his servant, and then to France where it was published in 1863.
The vivid descriptions of his discovery of the ruined temples of Angkor and his travels through dense jungle teeming with vipers and ferocious wild animals, provoked a storm of interest and enthusiasm in Europe. Other French explorers, notably Louis Delaporte in 1873, went to Angkor and began detailed research on the ruins. Finally, in 1907 the Ecole d’Extreme Orient scholars and archaeologists began their slow, painstaking restoration and reconstruction of the temples.
Before Mouhot’s time, there was a great deal of confusion about the mysterious lost ancient capital of Cambodia. D O King, an English explorer, made an expedition to the Angkor region. After returning, he lectured on Cambodia, reporting that only one temple of the ancient Cambodian capital remained - spared in AD200 after the city had been taken by the Cochin Chinese.
E J F Forrest, another English explorer, visited the region in the 1830s or 1840s. From the documents that remain, he seemed to have had some knowledge of the temples. A map dating from the 17th century has been found in Japan showing a detailed plan of an unidentified temple. This temple was later proved to be Angkor Wat which suggests that a Japanese trader or explorer may have been the first non-Cambodian to visit Angkor after it was abandoned in 1432.
Ecole Francaise d’Extreme Orient (French School of the Far East):
A society founded in 1898 which grew out of the exploration in Indo-China by French archaeologists and scholars towards the end of the 19th century. It was by far the most important organization to undertake the restoration of the temples of Angkor.
1863 - 1954 The period of France’s protectorate over Cambodia.
1904 - 1927 Norodom’s half brother, Sisowath, rules Cambodia under French control.
1916 Peasant uprisings against taxes and forced labor show popular opposition to the repressive French rule.
1927 - 1941 King Monivong rules Cambodia. Land in the east of the country is cultivated for rubber plantations.
1940 The Japanese occupy Indo-China.
1941 - 1992 SIHANOUK AND CAMBODIA:
Prince Sihanouk (aged 18) is put on the throne of Cambodia by the French in 1941 and remains in power until 1970.
In the mid-60s, the Khmer Rouge, an extreme-left organization becomes active against Sihanouk’s government.
In the late 60s, Sihanouk sides with the right wing elements in the government and crushes the Khmer Rouge. Their leaders flee to the countryside where they amass strength and numbers.
1969 - 1973 The United States bombs eastern Cambodia as part of the efforts to defeat the North Vietnamese communist forces [Map]who use Cambodian territory in their guerrilla war against South Vietnam and the United States.
1970 Sihanouk’s major political opponent, Lon Nol, deposes him, bringing a new government into power. Sihanouk moves to Peking and heads a government in exile, the National United Front of Cambodia.
South Vietnamese and US forces invade Cambodia on May 1 in an attempt to defeat Vietnamese communist forces hiding in Cambodia.
The Khmer Rouge become a significant opposition force to the Lon Nol government.
1975 Phnom Penh is taken by the Khmer Rouge on April 1. From 1975 to 1979 the Khmer Rouge are in power backed by the Peking government. Cambodia is renamed the Republic of Democratic Kampuchea.
Pol Pot, who was trained as a Buddhist monk and educated at a French university, becomes the foremost leader of the Khmer Rouge when he is made premier. Khieu Samphan, another important Khmer Rouge leader, is named head of state.
The Kampuchea government implements a vast program of social reorganization, relocating the urban population to the countryside and forcing them to work on collective farms. There is massive genocide of the Cambodian people, particularly the intelligentsia. Many Buddhist monks who live in the Angkor temples are massacred along with the majority of the Buddhist population.
1979 The Vietnamese invade Cambodia, take Phnom Penh and set up a new government. Pol Pot and Khieu Sampan flee to China and organize guerrilla resistance to the Vietnamese-backed government. There is civil war and mass starvation in Cambodia.
A large number of refugees from Cambodia flee into Thailand. The United Nations refuses to acknowledge the Vietnamese-backed government.
Fighting between Kampuchea and Vietnam continues until 1989 when the Vietnamese withdraw.
1991 Prince Sihanouk returns to Cambodia in November to help set up a new government.
1992 A coalition government of opposition parties, including the National United Front of Cambodia led by Sihanouk, is set up in Cambodia and monitored by the United Nations.
Work to restore Angkor, disrupted since the late 1960s, is actively begun again. Tourists return to Angkor.
