archaeology

BACKGROUND

It is increasingly difficult for prehistorians working in the twenty-first century to conceptualise the problems experienced by their predecessors, and approaches to interpretation before the 1960s are consistently criticised. Culture history and diffusionism may - with hindsight - seem excessively preoccupied with classification and social evolution, and to have applied unsophisticated historical interpretations instead of asking fundamental questions about human behaviour.
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"A Cahokia Market" By Michael Hampshire Courtesy of Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site Collinsville, Illinois

Spiro Stone Ear Spool. D:3" Le Flore Co., OK

The artifacts on virtual display were specifically chosen for their exceptional quality, representative style and remarkable workmanship. They are each among the finest known in either public or private collections. Because the Mississippians lived throughout what is now the Midwest and Southeast United States, artifacts from each of our corresponding modern states are represented here. Although the Mississippian Moundbuilders knew no state boundaries as we do today, it can be gratifying to realize that superb artifacts were found in our own proverbial backyards.

Each of the featured artifacts have been organized into categories including pottery, pipes, hardstone, discoidals, flint (both points and implements), ear ornaments, shell ornaments and beads. Although the Moundbuilders shared cultural affiliations with one another throughout the Midwest and Southeast United States, artifacts were not uniformly manufactured by style or materials. Local materials often varied despite widespread trade. For instance, Mill Creek and Kaolin cherts were commonly used in Illinois for the manufacture of flint implements. By contrast, Dover flint was more commonly used in Tennessee and Kentucky. That does not mean that materials were not traded. They were. However, artisans tended to use local materials rather than exotic materials from distant sources.
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Nimrud - The Treasures of the Queens
Nimrud is one of the great cities of the Assyrians who dominated Mesopotamia from the 10th century BC down to 612 BC when they were destroyed by the Medes and the Persians. In the Bible they appear as wicked rulers with wonderfully romantic names such as Tiglath-Pileser III. Recently the tombs of some of the great queens have been uncovered in the palace at Nimrud, buried under the floor in the harem with a wonderful collection of treasures in gold and other precious metals.

 

 

This glittering gold tiara was found in the tomb of Queen Yaba, the wife of Tiglath-Pileser III, who ruled 744 to 727 BC. The tomb chamber was accompanied by a fine curse, see below, but there was a second body buried with the queen.

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Absolute dating
Whenever it is possible to date an artefact or a site to a particular year (or interval of years). This can be made using dendrochronology, carbon-14, or datable objects such as coins.

AIMA
Australasian Institute of Maritime Archaeology

Aircraft
There are plenty of sunken aircraft underwater, many of them from World War Two. Some are just fragments, but others are intact. This area is researched by Steven Carmichael-Timson and Adam Wilson at Sea-Tech Exploration, UK.

Airlift
A wide tube is lowered to the excavation site. Into the lower end of the tube compressed air is pumped from the surface. The air bubbles up and creates a suction. This pulls up water, sand, and small objects. All of this can be sifted on deck. Photo at right by Mary Rose Trust. (more…)

A terra cotta sculpture of Hanuman in India. The reddish colour is due to iron oxide in the source clay. Clays with low iron content can result in paler colours on firing, ranging from white to yellow.

Terra cotta (Latin: "baked earth") is a waterproof ceramic. Its uses include vessels, water & waste water pipes and surface embellishment in building construction. The term is also used to refer to items made out of this material and to its natural, brownish orange color.

Production and properties

An appropriate refined clay "mud" is partially dried and cast, molded, or hand worked into the desired shape. After further thorough drying it is placed in a kiln, or atop combustable material in a pit, and then fired. After pit firing the hot ware is covered with sand to cool, and after kiln firing the kiln is slowly cooled. When unglased, the material will not be waterproof, but it is suitable for in-ground use to carry pressurized water (an archaic use), for garden ware, and sculpture or building decoration in tropical environments, and for oil containers, oil lamps, or ovens. Most other uses such as for table ware, sanitary piping, or building decoration in freezing environments require that the material be glazed. Terra cotta, if uncracked, will ring if lightly struck, but not as brightly as will ware fired at higher temperature, which is called stoneware. The fired material is relatively weak compared to stoneware. Owing to the low firing temperatures it is possible to use lead-containging glases, which although once widely used are now recognized as producing both health and environmental hazzards. (more…)

A New Exhibition Brings the Doomed Residents of Pompeii and Herculaneum Vividly To Life

By Doug Stewart

Ministero per i Beni e le Attivita Culturali-Soprintendenza archeologica di Pompei/Field Museum, Chicago.

Daybreak, August 25, A.D. 79. Under a lurid and sulfurous sky, a family of four struggles down an alley filled with pumice stones, desperately trying to escape the beleaguered city of Pompeii. Leading the way is a middle-aged man carrying gold jewelry, a sack of coins and the keys to his house. Racing to keep up are his two small daughters, the younger one with her hair in a braid. Close behind is their mother, scrambling frantically through the rubble with her skirts hiked up. She clutches an amber statuette of a curly-haired boy, perhaps Cupid, and the family silver, including a medallion of Fortune, goddess of luck.

But neither amulets nor deities can protect them. Like thousands of others this morning, the four are overtaken and killed by an incandescent cloud of scorching gases and ash from Mount Vesuvius. In the instant before he dies, the man strains to lift himself from the ground with one elbow. With his free hand, he pulls a corner of his cloak over his face, as though the thin cloth will save him. (more…)

by Robin H. Rutherfoord

Old Pueblo Archaeology Center has recently offered a variety of courses for certification credit through the Arizona Archaeology Society. These classes provide basic knowledge and field skills in archaeology allowing the student to become a valuable member of an archaeological research team. Currently Allen Dart, Old Pueblo’s Director, is teaching AAS’s Survey Techniques course.

Until the 1980’s very few Hohokam sites in the Tucson Basin had been excavated and analyzed. Why then have hundreds of sites been unearthed in the 1990s? How have these sites been discovered? Fortunately for archaeologists, Pima County enacted an ordinance stating that in order to change the zoning status or start construction on private lands in the county, the land must be surveyed by a state-approved archaeologist before development or rezoning can occur.

SURVEY? What is an archaeological survey and how are sites found? Jeanne Neal, Susan Eastman and I, Robin Rutherfoord, have been attempting to master the skills of archaeological surveying these last three months. So far, we have explored three various sized parcels of land, and in doing so improved our ability to use compasses and maps. We marched back and forth along a metered line to determine our own measurable pace, and we were determined to engrave into our minds the concept of 10-meter spacing while developing the skill of walking in a precise North-South direction.

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By Mr Joseph Bramley

 

Left. Gervase Clifton, Clifton (1491).

SIR GERVASE CLIFTON. 1491.
CHURCH OF ST. MARY, CLIFTON.

The brass of Sir Gervase Clifton is a good example of the early Tudor brasses, as he died in 1491.

The knight is clad in a mail collar, pauldrons, and cuirass. The cuirass is strengthened by placcates buckled on the centre. His coudieres are small compared with other examples of about this date, such as the Wollaton brass of 1471. He has a taces of three lames, from which hang two rather large tuiles. His cuisses, genouillieres, and jambes are normal, and his sollerets pointed, with long rowel spurs attached. His sword is suspended diagonally, and he has the usual misericorde. He has a lion at his feet.

The figure is 35½in. in length.

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By Mr Joseph Bramley

 

Left. Unknown civilian, Newark (c.1540).

CIVILIAN UNKNOWN. (circa 1540.)
CHURCH OF ST. MARY MAGDALENE, NEWARK-ON-TRENT.

This brass is on the floor of the north transept of Newark Parish Church, and commemorates some unknown gentleman of about 1540 A.D.

Over the long gown is a collar and frontlet of fur reaching to the hem. Under the gown the wearer would be clad in a tunic, the tight sleeves of which can be seen. Hose and wide shoes complete his outer garments.

In accordance with the custom prevailing at the time, his face is cleanly shaven and his hair allowed to grow long. The shield below the figure may or may not relate to the figure above it, and nothing is known as to the arms on it, which consist of three tiaras, two and one, emitting rays.

The figure is 185/8in. in height.

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By Mr Joseph Bramley

Left. Dame Millicent Meryng, East Markham Church (1419).

DAME MILLICENT MERYNG. 1419.
CHURCH OF ST. JOHN BAPTIST, EAST MARKHAM.

Dame Millicent Meryng, as her brass records, died in 1419. The brass is to be found in the nave of the Church of St. John Baptist, East Markham. The engraving and design are not excelled in this county.

On her head is the crespine head-dress then in fashion, and consisting in this case of an arrangement of wires with a couvrechef thrown over them. Her hair is kept in position by a wire frame. A gold chain and jewelled cross hang round her neck. Over her shoulders is a square collar turned down, and she wears a short waisted gown, while the sleeves of her kirtle appear under her long, flowing cloak. A pet dog with belled collar is shewn at her feet.

The lady was daughter of Sir John Bekeryng, and married first Sir Nicholas Burdon, then Sir John Mark­ham, and lastly Sir William Meryng. She was mother of John Markham, Lord Chief Justice of England.

The brass is enclosed by a frame 5ft. 3in. by 2ft. 5in. The figure is 46in. in height.

INSCRIPTION.

“Hic jacet Dna Millicentia Meryng quondam uxor Willim Meryng militis que obiit XXVII September Anno dni MOCCCCO XIX cujus aie ppicietur deus amen.”

TRANSLATION.

“Here lies the lady Millicent Meryng formerly wife of William Meryng Knight who died the 27th of September in the year of the Lord 1419 on whose soul may God have mercy.”

Right. Radulph Babyngton, Hickling church (1521).

RADULPH BABYNCTON. 1521.
CHURCH OF ST. LUKE, HICKLING.

This brass in the Church of St. Luke, Hickling, commemorates Radulph Babyngton, Rector of Hickling, who died in 1521, and is inferior in design and execution to the Stanford brass. The priest wears the amice, alb, stole, maniple, and chasuble. The latter, unlike the Stanford example, is ornamented with an orphrey. The chalice which the priest holds shews the Host, stamped with a cross. The family of Babyngton are com­memorated by a tomb in Ashover Church, which includes an effigy of Radulph Babyngton.

The figure is 19in. in height.

SCROLL.

“Calicem salatarem accipiā nome dni invocato.”

TRANSLATION.

“I will receive the cup of salvation and call upon the name of the Lord.”

INSCRIPTION.

“Orate p āiā magri’ Radi Babyngton filii Thome Babyngton./ de dethyk in com’ Derb Armigr in deoretis bacularii quondam/ rector de Hyklyng qui mansū rectorie ejusdem de novo reparuit et / plura edificia de novo construxit et obiit XXIX die Augusti A° / dni M° V° XXI post septimum annum Regiminis sui cujus anime propicietur deus Amen.”

TRANSLATION.

“Pray for the soul of master Radulph Babyngton son of Thomas Babyngton son of Dethick in County Derby Knight Bachelor in Canon Law, formerly Rector of Hickling, who restored anew the dwelling house of the same rectory and built afresh many structures, and died the 29th day of August in the year of the Lord 1521, after the 7th year of his rectorate on whose soul may God have mercy. Amen.”

Left. William Breton in Annesley Hall (1595).[This brass is now in the ‘new’ Annesley parish church].

WILLIAM BRETON. 1595.
ANNESLEY.

This mutilated brass to William Breton was formerly in Annesley Old Church, but was removed thence to Annesley Hall, as the church is no longer used.

The brass represents a man in hunting costume, with a bow in one hand and an arrow in the other. A dog is attached by a cord to the man’s belt. A hunting knife is also suspended from his belt.

I have tried unsuccessfully to discover the identity of William Breton. The church registers only go back to 1599, otherwise they might have shed some light on the matter.

In records of perambulations of Sherwood Forest made in 1300 and 1538, the names “Breton” and “Bretten” appear in reference to land near Annesley, and possibly William Breton may have been a descendant of the persons there mentioned.

The brass stood in one of the windows of the old church, but none of the inhabitants appear to know its original position.

The brass measures 13in. by 11in.

INSCRIPTION.

“Hic jacet corpvs Willielmi
Breton de Ansley qvi ad
centessirnvm prope vixit
annvm obiitq tricessimo
primo die Ianvarij anno
Dni 1595.

TRANSLATION.

“Here lies the body of William Breton of Annesley who lived until nigh a hundred years of age and died on the thirty-first day of January in the year of our Lord 1595.”

 

Right. William Phyllypot, Newark parish church (1557).

WILLIAM PHYLLYPOT. 1557.
CHURCH OF ST. MARY MAGDALENE, NEWARK-ON-TRENT.

The brass of William Phyllypot, in the Church of St. Mary Magdalene, Newark-on-Trent, is affixed to the wall of the north aisle. Phyllypot died in 1557, and the brass was on the floor of the south transept till 1811, when it was placed in its present position. The inscrip­tion still remains in the south transept. Phyllypot was a liberal benefactor to the poor of Newark.

The dress in which William Phyllypot is shewn is similar to that of the other figure brass in the church, except that in this case the false sleeves of the long gown only reach to the knees. At this period beards are worn, while the hair is now short instead of long. The figure is 305/8in. in height.

INSCRIPTION.

“Here under thys stone lyeth buryed the bodye of
Wyllyam Phyllypott marchant, and Elyzabeth hys
wyffe whych Wyllm decessyd ye VIII day of maye yn
An° dni mccccclvii whose dethe delyryng youe
all to haue yn rememberans callyng to God for men.”

J Bramley, Notts monumental brasses, Transactions of the Thoroton Society, 17 (1913)
© A P NICHOLSON | CREATED: 21 DECEMBER 2003

By Mr Joseph Bramley

Right. Merchants’ mark of Edmund Sheffeld, in North Wheatley church (1445).

MERCHANTS’ MARK OF EDMUND SHEFFELD. 1445.
CHURCH OF SS. PETER & PAUL, NORTH WHEATLEY.

This merchants’ mark of Edmund Sheffeld, with the inscription under it, is to be found in the Church of SS. Peter and Paul, North Wheatley. It was moved there from West Burton Church, near by, when this church was pulled down a few years ago.

No trace can now be found of any connection between the Sheffeld family and West Burton.

It is unfortunate, also, that the early records of the Vintners’ Company, to which Sheffeld possibly belonged, were destroyed in the great fire of London, otherwise some information could probably have been obtained about him.

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The great Iron Age hoards discovered at Snettisham in Norfolk form the richest Iron Age treasure ever discovered in this country. Current Archaeology has published two accounts, in CA 126 and CA 135. This account comes from CA 135.

Right. The ‘Marriage Torc’ from Snettisham. The upper part of the terminal of this gold torc shows a stylised human face. Does the main terminal represent a symbolic belly with the gold ring representing the umbilical cord that attaches to the other terminal?

The Snettisham treasure was first discovered in 1948. The field was being ploughed deeper than usual, and in the course of ploughing the ploughman discovered an interesting lump of metal. He took it to the foreman and asked him what it was. The foreman pronounced it to be part of a brass bedstead: and thus a gold torque - now one of the finest treasures in the Norwich Museum - lay for a week by the side of the field. Then more fragments of metal turned up and a local businessman recognised it as an antiquity, and took it to Norwich Museum where the keeper, Rainbird Clark, confirmed its importance. They returned to the field and the ‘brass bedstead’ was recognised as being a gold torque.

Excavations were carried out in the vicinity and the sites of the hoards were discovered, shallow pits, numbered A B and C. From now onwards, every time the field was ploughed the ploughman was on the lookout for discoveries. Finds were made in 1950, 1964, 1968 and 1973.

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How Archaeology Makes a Real Difference in Northwest Thailand

by Ben Marwick

Archaeology in Thailand, and Southeast Asia generally, is full of impressive monumental architecture and delicately decorated ceramics. It is easy to see why this is the case - these artefacts have tremendous aesthetic appeal and are easily appreciated by ambling through the ruins at Sukhothai or getting lost in the spirals on Ban Chiang ceramics. Some writers, such as Ian Glover of the Institute of Archaeology, University College London, argue that the focus on monumental and spectacular archaeology in Thailand is a strategy to cultivate a contemporary national identity that traces its roots to powerful, centralised and skilled ancient cultures (as well as making picturesque attractions to capture tourist markets).

Maybe there’s some truth to the suggested political purposes of archaeology in Thailand. But this isn’t all that’s going on, if you’ve had enough of the glitter of empires past then you might be interested to see some of the more exciting and innovative directions that Thai archaeologists have been taking recently. The old-school habits of large military-style surveys and excavations with sweating coolies supervised by monocled, elder gentlemen are well and truly gone. The new directions have two important features: firstly, using archaeology as an instrument of local community development and secondly, telling the stories of the ancient cultures that lived in Thailand for tens of thousands of years before any monuments or ceramics appeared. (more…)

Locating Domains of Devotion, Patronage and Power in the Eleventh Century

by MICHAEL WILLIS

Bijamandal and Bhojpur

The relative importance of Bhilsa vis à vis Udayagiri in post-Gupta times is indicated by the massive temple ruin known as the Bijamandal (Fig. 9). This is not dated but an inscription on one of the pillars belongs to the time of king Naravarman (c. 1093-1134). The inscription gives a short hymn in praise of the goddess Caccika.32 The eulogy, together with sculptures recovered from the debris piled against the lower mouldings, indicate that the Bijamandal was originally dedicated to this goddess and perhaps also to Siva. The inscription does not mention the foundation of the temple and the way it has been engraved on a pillar seems to indicate that it was added to a pre-existing structure. But was the temple relatively new when the inscription was incised on the pillar? Or was the building erected earlier than the reign of Naravarman? If it is earlier, when is it to be placed? These are not simple questions to answer given the present state of the evidence and the degree to which it has been analysed.

One site which potentially provides some answers is Bhojpur.33 The Siva temple there, much celebrated because it houses the largest linga in India, is not far from Bhilsa, standing as it does on the banks of the Betwa about forty kilometres upstream. Although a detailed comparative study would be needed to determine the matter scientifically, the huge base-mouldings at Bhojpur suggest that it is closely related to the Bijamandal, the two monuments perhaps even sharing the same architects and masons. Surviving sculptures from the two sites also share a number of decorative and iconographic conventions (Fig. 10). Because it was never completed, the Bhojpur temple has no dedicatory inscription. The name of the locality, however, points to an association with king Bhoja (c. 1000-55). This link is corroborated by a colossal Jaina image with an inscription mentioning [rajadhi] rajaparamesvara Bhojadeva.34 The Jaina image is in a shrine not far from the Siva temple and the location, if not the shrine’s current fabric, belongs to Paramara times. The implication is that there was considerable sculptural activity at Bhojpur when Bhoja was on the throne in the first half of the eleventh century. (more…)

Archaeologist Liu Yi-chang previously unearthed pre-historical artifacts in the area set aside for a buttress of a bridge. The bridge was part of project near the Port of Taipei, and was a vital part of the Bali – Xindian east – west highway. Liu carried out the digging as part of the environmental assessment required ahead of the construction of the bridge. The “rope line pottery” artifacts found by Liu were dated back to the middle part of the New Stone Age, which means that they are over 4,000 years old. Liu successfully unearthed other red pottery shards with designs and rope lines, and other artifacts from the era.

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